By exploring the Enlightenment era, Seth David Radwell both presents the history of political discourse in America and offers a set of solutions to bridge the divide that has become the norm in American politics. By exploring both Moderate and Radical Enlightenment, we get a glimpse into the establishment of the American Constitution and the subsequent democratic landscape. The schism that exists today took root prior to the American Revolution. With Radwell’s hope for a unifying future, we learn about America’s past and look to the future to bridge the divide.

An introduction to both the Moderate and the Radical Enlightenment provides us the backstory of everything from the American Revolution to the drafting of the American Constitution. The Enlightenment era began in Europe and helped lead to both the American and French Revolutions. When we take a closer look at the two types of Enlightenments, we see differing perspectives but also some overlapping ideals.

The Moderate Enlightenment provided a social contract comprised mostly of trade-offs. For government to provide any sort of social service, the citizens must abide by a set group of laws and relinquish certain freedoms. Moderates believed a government should uphold the safety of its citizens. In order to do so, formal institutions must be put in place to protect citizens and their property. Property rights were instrumental to the Moderate Enlightenment movement. By maintaining property ownership, citizens would not have to fear government expropriation. 

Moderate thinkers also believed that the educated class should provide all societal representation. In other words, only truly enlightened thinkers such as themselves were readily equipped to govern the people. In modern society this would be considered an “aristocratic republic.” Essentially, “groups of elite educated leaders” would be responsible for enacting laws. As Radwell explains, “they would provide the necessary checks and balances required by the government.”

The last important element of Moderate Enlightenment is the role that religion plays in governing. All Enlightenment thinkers believed that science is fundamental, however only the Moderate Enlightenment thinkers believed that the church should play a crucial role in educating citizens, as well as provide a moral code for society. Moderate thinkers recognized scientific advancements and did not believe church and science to be mutually exclusive. The role of religion was a major distinction between the two schools of Enlightenment.

Unlike their Moderate Enlightenment counterparts, Radical Enlightenment thinkers believed that governing should not be left exclusively to educated elites. They believed the truest form of representation would come from all elements of society, not just the educated. In order for people to live without fear of their rights being infringed upon, all elements of society must participate in the governing process. Radical Enlightenment thinkers leaned heavily on the egalitarian principle that is the bedrock of American society: a government of the people, by the people, and for the people.

These thinkers believed that rights should consist of more than just the right to live freely and property rights. They set out to home in on what these rights should be. We are all familiar with the fundamental rights such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness that our very country is founded on. These were the rights Radical thinkers set forth as the cornerstone of our modern society. They recognized equality as the most important element required to uphold those rights.

Equal access to education was fundamental for the success of the Radical Enlightenment movement. They believed it is the government’s duty to provide education to all of society, not just to the elites. A cavernous education gap already existed between the elites and others, and education provided to the masses took place in religious settings. To further educate society without the dogmatic underpinnings of the church, Radical Enlightenment thinkers aimed to institute a public education system. They recognized that a deeper education would be necessary for citizens to play an integral part of everything from electing government officials to benefitting society as a whole.

Where Moderate thinkers believed the church should be fundamental in government, the Radical Enlightenment thinkers believed the exact opposite. They believed a separation of church and state was necessary for the success of a society. Radical thinkers believed the relationship between nobility and the church had led to oppression of the masses for generations. 

Many of the Founding Fathers and revolutionary leaders adhered to one or the other school of Enlightenment. When they began to suspect the British were intentionally stifling the colonists expressly to eliminate their freedoms, the desire for revolt grew. Such leaders as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were enlightened thinkers. Taking a closer look at the framing of the Constitution and the Revolution itself, Radwell shows how the pendulum swings from Moderate to Radical and then back to Moderate again.

The American Moderates consisted of such historical figures as John Adams and Alexander Hamilton. The First Continental Congress consisted of both loyalists to the British monarchy as well as Moderate Enlightenment thinkers hoping to see the full potential of this new nation. Adams was a strong leader in Congress who believed that the government had to be carefully checked so as not to oppress society. However, he believed a total democracy would unravel society as a whole. To combat this, Adams maintained that property ownership should be required for one to vote or to participate in this new governing structure. Alexander Hamilton held similar beliefs. What he envisioned would be considered “elitist” by today’s standards: that only the aristocratic class would govern, and only White male property owners should participate in electing government officials.

Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, and Benjamin Franklin were members of the American Radical Enlightenment. Jefferson strongly believed that each individual should be free to pursue well-being without the constraints of an imposing government or an overbearing church. To Jefferson, the role of government was necessary but should be minimal in scope.

When Thomas Paine authored Common Sense, the schism between Moderates and Radicals became evident. Paine’s pamphlet stirred revolutionary sentiment and a desire for a new governing body. However, Moderates were worried it would lead to uprisings and chaos. His vision was truly egalitarian and spoke to men, women, and enslaved people alike. Ultimately, his ideas would spur not only the American Revolution, but the French Revolution as well.

Benjamin Franklin was the embodiment of radical thinking in that he strongly believed in an egalitarian approach and spurned religion as unnecessary to government. His contributions to both the American and French Revolutions were innumerable. In addition, his contributions to American society resulted in freedom of the press, a library system, and the U.S. Postal Service.

These Moderate and Radical Enlightenment thinkers worked together throughout the creation of the United States of America and its governing body. Though America’s founding fathers accomplished a great feat by overcoming their political differences to found a nation, their conflicting principles soon created tension in the newly established government.

The nation’s first two political parties revealed the deepening schism within the new country. The Federalists and the Democratic Republicans (which Radwell refers to simply as Republicans) were vying to be the major representative party of the United States. The French Revolution played a part in the deepening schism. The Federalists deemed that revolution a failure. On the other side, the Republicans considered it a direct link to the American Revolution, as France was a sister country and played an integral role in securing America’s freedom from Britain.

Given the separation of the political parties as well as the Moderate and Radical schools of Enlightenment, the atmosphere was ideal for a contrarian movement to arise. The Counter-Enlightenment was the rejection of the Enlightenment philosophies and their effects on society. This movement consisted of conservative ideals that were threatened by Enlightenment principles. Counter-Enlightenment believers felt most threatened by Radical thinkers. Moderate thinkers still relied heavily on the church as a vehicle to mobilize their beliefs and governance. 

After the French Revolution, the Counter-Enlightenment movement helped to propel an uprising as the masses blamed their current deteriorating situations on the principles brought about by Enlightened thinkers. This became more prevalent in rural France, and eventually the growing concerns of the French people became weaponized, leading to the Reign of Terror (1793-1794). Maximilien Robespierre led this anti-intelligence purge of the French people, during which over 17,000 were executed on the premise of “enemies of the Revolution.” Both the American Moderates and the Counter-Enlightenments used the fear of a similar fate to influence Americans to reject Radical philosophies and ideas. Once news of the Reign of Terror spread to America, the nation’s anxiety was palpable. The Counter-Enlightenment movement capitalized on this fear and relied heavily on religion to influence citizens. They were able to blame the violence in France on a dangerous move away from religion. 

The Counter-Enlightenment was essentially an anti-intellectual movement. It often relied on scare tactics and fear mongering. The movement also successfully used religion to incite support by labeling opponents “anti-Christian.” This movement exists to this day in America, and remains a constant in our society.

Thomas Jefferson is historically linked to slavery for several reasons. Jefferson was himself a slave owner, yet was fully aware that slavery was not congruent with Enlightenment principles. Upon completion of the Louisiana Purchase and despite the urgings of those who were once his Radical Enlightenment cohorts, he allowed slavery to expand into the new territory. Despite all Thirteen Colonies agreeing to ban slavery following the American Revolution, states passed legislation to legalize the slave trade again following the formation of the union. President Jefferson would eventually criminalize the import and export of slaves as a human rights violation, but interstate slave trade continued.

Eventually, slavery completely divided the country, resulting in the Civil War. Slavery had become part of the American landscape, undermining the very ideological foundation of  the nation. The horrors of slavery riled abolitionists in the North.

Looking back at the differing Enlightenment stances, we see the schism at its essence. Moderate Enlightenment advocates viewed slave ownership as a form of property ownership. Slaves were property and thus protected as a fundamental right. However, the Radical Enlightenment advocates recognized slavery as a complete and total disregard for human life and equality, despite some owning slaves themselves.

While the Emancipation Proclamation freed slaves, it did not create an equal and fair society. There was rampant segregation, especially in the South. The Civil Rights movement was integral to promoting racial equality in the nation, but many inequities remain to this day. These are part of the American schism dividing our nation in the 21st century.

The election of President Barack Obama awakened the egalitarian hopes of the nation and represented the Radical Enlightenment ideals the nation was built on. Barack Obama was a Radical Enlightenment thinker, which inspired a strong Counter-Enlightenment movement as a reaction.

During the Great Recession, many Americans suffered economic pressure as a result of the globalization of the American workforce and the reliance on overseas manufacturing. This came to a head during Obama’s presidency, which opened the door for Donald Trump to persuade the American people that this economic pressure was directly related to diversity and multiracial tendencies. Working-class voters suddenly believed their problems were directly related to “neoliberal and globalist policies,” as Radwell calls them, that were created during Obama’s presidency. Trump capitalized on this; the White American working class felt left behind due to a strong immigrant workforce coupled with the globalization of American jobs.

After the Great Recession, when banks were barely held accountable for their roles in the housing collapse, average Americans realized they were held to different standards than giant corporations. This caused unrest in the working class as they felt left behind by their government. The environment was perfect for a Counter-Enlightenment movement.

President Trump became the working-class savior they were seeking. Despite never being a member of the working-class, Trump was able to appeal to this massive set of voters. By using rhetoric that put blame on the multiracial immigrant class, as well as becoming a staunch defender of Christian and Evangelical communities, he sowed the seeds of distrust in American government and in the democratic process itself.

Radwell contends that Trump used three rhetorical enablers to enhance his Counter-Enlightenment movement: tribalism, the creation of an alternative reality, and belief validation. Tribalism is devotion and loyalty to one’s own group, which Trump capitalized on with his base. He would often use the polarized media as a way to connect with his base. Lastly, he would use a concept with psychological roots: belief validation. Trump gave license to his supporters by daring to communicate certain beliefs that many were afraid to say. When he would say something that many people deemed offensive, his supporters rallied around him and felt represented by someone who was not afraid to speak his mind.

President Trump’s ability to garner support and devotion came to the forefront after the 2020 election. Trump essentially attacked democracy and instilled doubt in the voting system of the nation. By declaring the results of the election a “lie,” he demonstrated an authoritarian approach to our election process. This in turn furthered the schism in America.

In order to attempt to heal the schism in America, we must take a closer look at equality itself. Radwell explains that to be “equal” is not to be the “same.” Being the “same” means being “identical.” This is where the Radical Enlightenment thinkers embraced equality and recognized that our differences are exactly what would make our society flourish. Celebrating differences would lead to a rich society full of depth and character.

Radwell contends that to bridge the gap of the American Schism, we must step outside of our bubbles. Most people tend to discuss politics with those who agree with them, or if they find themselves in a political disagreement, it quickly turns heated. We must learn to be open to other ways of thinking. Recognizing and discussing differences of opinion will enable us to close the gap and advance as a society.

Healing the American Schism will require reaching across the aisle. Radwell suggests that our nation needs campaign advertising reform, a recommitment to our democratic form of government, and structural changes such as eliminating the Electoral College and imposing term limits on Congressional representatives and Supreme Court Justices.

Radwell also believes that voting should be a requirement of citizenship and all citizens should have the ability and access to vote. Gerrymandering and voter suppression are the unfortunate norms of the day and should be prohibited. He believes voter ID laws and voter intimidation should be prohibited. Many citizens support the idea of a national holiday on an election day to allow people better access to the polls.  

For our democratic society to survive, we must look away from the extremists on both the right and the left. The only way to combat the deep divide of our nation is through reason and compromise. Hopefully, this will heal the schism as we move to the future.